Project news Research 

Exploring the peaks and valleys: insights from the 2023 Apollo breeding season

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Butterfly breeding farms typically aim to contribute to the conservation of endangered species, such as the Apollo butterfly. These farms often involve the careful cultivation of host plants, creating suitable habitats for the butterflies and implementing controlled breeding programs.

Breeding farm in Jagniątków. Photo: Aleksandra Puchtel
Breeding farm in Jagniątków. Photo: Aleksandra Puchtel

Four breeding farms are currently in operation as part of the LIFE Apollo2020 project. Two of them: in Poland (Jagniątków, Sudetes) and in Austria (Saalfelden, Alps) were already operational before the project started. The other two have been established as part of the project’s activities: the farm in Poland (Uniemyśl, Sudetes), and in Czechia (Barchov, Sudetes). As part of the project, it is also planned to run a second breeding farm in Czechia in the White Carpathians.

A newly established breeding farm in Uniemyśl.
Our breeding farm in Jagniątków as seen from the inside. Photo: Aleksandra Puchtel

Breeding success in butterfly farms can be influenced by various factors, including environmental conditions. Cold weather in spring can pose a challenge to the breeding process, as it may affect the development of butterfly eggs, larvae, and pupae. Butterflies are ectothermic, meaning their body temperature is regulated by external conditions. Extreme cold can slow down their metabolic processes and developmental stages, leading to reduced breeding success. On the other hand, excessively high temperatures in the breeding season can lead to increased mortality.

Caterpillars hatching from eggs. Photo: Kamila Grzesiak
Caterpillars feeding on Sedum maximum. Photo: Miloš Andres

In the new breeding tents, the location had to be tested and solutions relating to sunlight and thermals had to be adapted. However, even in breeding farms that have been in operation for many years, there are still situations that can come as a surprise. The climate is changing, and even in cooler mountainous regions, extremely high temperatures can occur. This past spring, however, surprised us in a different way in the Sudetes. It was rainy, cool, and there were few sunny days.

The Apollo butterfly individual tagged before being released into the habitat. Photo: Kamila Grzesiak
Special sleeves in which females are kept during egg-laying. Photo: Miloš Andres

In some farms, we encountered unexpected problems related to egg and caterpillar mortality, as well as the transitional phase occurring between developmental stages and the mating process of butterflies. Certain issues were attributed to the weather conditions, particularly the excessively rainy and overcast conditions during spring and early summer. This was particularly evident in the breeding site of Uniemyśl in the Sudetes, where the phenology at all stages of the insects’ lives was delayed compared to other breeding farms.

Caterpillars in a specially arranged breeding container. Photo: Dariusz Kuś
Caterpillars at the stage just before entering the pupal stage. Photo: Miloš Andres

Some of these problems, however, make us reflect on our breeding methods and will force us to make some modifications and adjustments to the breeders themselves as well as the breeding tents. Failures are a natural part of any process. They prompt us to make improvements and to create variants to deal with negative changes in external conditions. To mitigate the impact of weather, butterfly farms may implement measures such as providing sheltered environments, temperature control, and adjusting breeding schedules based on weather forecasts. Additionally, ongoing research and collaboration with experts in entomology and environmental science can contribute to better understanding and addressing the challenges faced by butterfly breeding programs.

Copulating pair of Apollo butterflies. Photo: Miloš Andres
Feeding the butterflies with a specially formulated mixture. Photo: Miloš Andres

To enhance our understanding of the breeding process and the breeding materials used, population genetic studies are conducted on the deceased specimens collected from breeding activities in Poland. Furthermore, investigations are carried out to assess the presence of diseases and parasites. Both low genetic diversity and disease factors can be the cause of a decline in breeding performance, and we need to clarify and find solutions to these issues as well. The presence of several breeders in different parts of Europe allows us to collect a lot of data on what can go wrong while securing breeding material and the possibility of exchange between breeders.

Releasing Apollos into the wild. Photo: Piotr Słowiński

Thanks to our collaboration with breeders, last year we successfully released a total of 1240 individuals at reintroduction sites across 11 different locations in the Polish and Czech regions of the Sudetes and the Austrian Alps.

Author: Anna Bator-Kocoł

Research 

The Apollo Butterfly: How Genome Research and Habitat Studies Drive Conservation Efforts

Posted By: Lisa Marie Mahlknecht 46 Views 0 Comment

The Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo), a species of conservation concern throughout Europe, is emblematic of the delicate balance between genetic adaptation and environmental stability in alpine and coastal ecosystems. As climate change and habitat degradation increasingly threaten its survival, conservationists are combining genome sequencing and habitat-specific studies to understand the underlying mechanisms that drive its resilience and vulnerabilities. This integrative approach provides a model for targeted conservation strategies that address both genetic and environmental challenges.

Genome Sequencing: Illuminating Adaptive Mechanisms in the Apollo Butterfly

The recent sequencing of the Apollo butterfly’s genome offers profound insights into the evolutionary and adaptive processes that underpin its survival in high-altitude and rocky coastal environments. Genomic analysis reveals gene variants associated with physiological traits that enable the Apollo to cope with temperature extremes, such as enhanced cold tolerance and seasonal metabolic adaptations. These traits are crucial in the butterfly’s current alpine habitats, where climate-induced temperature fluctuations are increasingly common. Identifying these genetic markers allows conservation biologists to model potential impacts of further environmental changes, facilitating more predictive conservation approaches that anticipate gene-environment interactions.

Habitat Shifts Under Climate Change: Implications for Population Viability

Habitat studies have illustrated the significant influence of climate change on the Apollo butterfly’s spatial distribution. Temperature increases drive the species to higher altitudes, where habitat availability diminishes, leading to more fragmented populations and lower genetic diversity. Studies conducted in the Archipelago Sea indicate that Apollo occupancy has decreased even in areas where host plant (Sedum telephium) populations remain stable, suggesting that temperature and precipitation changes impact Apollo survival independently of host plant abundance. These findings underline the importance of maintaining heterogeneous habitats that provide microclimates, which may buffer populations against climatic extremes and mitigate the risks associated with habitat fragmentation.

Anthropogenic Pressures: Fragmentation and Morphological Stress Indicators

Research highlights that habitat fragmentation due to human development, including road construction and tourism, has measurable impacts on the Apollo butterfly’s morphology, such as changes in wing symmetry linked to increased environmental stress. These morphological indicators suggest that habitat disturbance not only constrains population distribution but also reduces individual fitness by disrupting essential behavioural patterns, such as mate-finding and migration. Habitat fragmentation also restricts gene flow, further compromising the species’ adaptive potential. The accumulation of these stressors demonstrates the need for contiguous, protected landscapes that support not only Apollo butterfly populations but also their associated ecological networks.

LIFE Apollo2020: A Genomic and Ecological Approach to Conservation

The LIFE Apollo2020 project integrates genomic insights and habitat data to design conservation interventions that address both the Apollo butterfly’s genetic needs and its specific environmental requirements. Habitat restoration and protection efforts under this project are informed by genetic data that identify populations with lower diversity and potential vulnerability, allowing targeted management practices. By preserving critical habitats and supporting gene flow among populations, LIFE Apollo2020 aims to enhance population viability, reducing the risks posed by genetic bottlenecks and isolated habitats. This project exemplifies a modern conservation approach that leverages genomic research to adapt management practices to the unique characteristics of each population.

Implications for Broader Conservation Models

The combined application of genome mapping and habitat-specific studies in Apollo butterfly conservation sets a precedent for addressing the complexities of biodiversity loss under climate change. Genomic data allows conservationists to pinpoint adaptive genetic traits that are vital for species survival, while habitat studies highlight the immediate ecological pressures threatening these traits. For the Apollo butterfly, this integrative approach ensures that conservation strategies are both proactive and scientifically grounded, providing a comprehensive framework for maintaining resilience in biodiversity hotspots. Protecting this species and its habitat not only preserves a unique component of alpine and coastal ecosystems but also reinforces the broader ecological networks essential to biodiversity stability.

Butterflies for beginners Events 

Hands-On learning with the Apollo in Austria

Posted By: Lisa Marie Mahlknecht 102 Views 0 Comment

As part of the LIFEApollo2020 project, several engaging workshops were held across Austrian schools this year to introduce students to the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo) and its importance in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Through hands-on activities and the creation of a dedicated Apollo garden, students learned about the unique needs of this species and how conservation efforts can protect it.

School Workshops: Interactive learning is fun!

In Spring, the austrian project team, together with butterfly expert Otto Feldner, organized engaging workshops in Austrian schools to introduce students to the captivating life of the Apollo butterfly. Each workshop began with an interactive overview of the Apollo butterfly’s lifecycle, guiding students through each stage from egg to caterpillar, pupa, and finally, the adult butterfly. By exploring the specific needs of the Apollo butterfly at each stage we aimed for students to develop a deeper respect for its lifecycle and understand the importance of habitat preservation. They learned about the butterfly’s reliance on specific feeding plants, with adult butterflies (imagines) depending on nectar sources like pincushion flowers, knapweeds and thistle, while caterpillars (larvae) feed exclusively on Sedum species such as Sedum album, Sedum sexangulare, or Sedum telephium maximum. Without these plants, it wouldn’t be possible to maintain the delicate balance essential for the Apollo butterfly’s survival.

Through lectures and followed up group and individual works, students explored the concept of an “Umbrella species” and how conserving a single species, like Parnassius apollo, can have widespread benefits for its entire ecosystem. An umbrella species is one whose protection indirectly shields many other species within the same habitat. Since the Apollo butterfly has very specific habitat and dietary needs, ensuring that its environment remains intact requires maintaining a rich diversity of native plants, clean soil, minimal human disturbance and polution levels. This, in turn, creates a suitable habitat for countless other organisms that share the same space. This learning experience not only educated students on butterfly conservation but also hopefully deepened their appreciation for the interconnectedness of nature.

The Apollo Garden: Building a conservation space together

In collaboration with students, an Apollo Garden was established at a school in Mittersill, Austria, as part of the LIFEApollo2020 project. This garden serves as a dedicated small-scale habitat for Apollo butterflies and other pollinators, allowing students to actively participate in conservation. Together, they designed and created a vibrant space, carefully planting Sedum species essential for caterpillars, as well as seeds of a variety of nectar-rich flowers like pincushion flowers, thistles, and field scabious, which provide food for adult butterflies. The garden also includes stones and sunlit areas, mimicking the natural rocky habitats that Apollo butterflies prefer.

Students and teachers learned practical gardening techniques to make environments more butterfly-friendly, such as selecting the right plants, ensuring good soil conditions, and creating sheltering spots. Creating the Apollo Garden allowed students to experience how conservation can begin in their own community. They learned that even small gardens can act as “stepping stones” for butterflies and other pollinators, aiding in migration and enhancing local biodiversity.

#followapollo Butterflies for beginners 

Gardens for Apollo: Something for Butterflies, Caterpillars, and People

Posted By: Kamila Redererova 120 Views 0 Comment ,

One of the key activities of the Apollo 2020 project, “Conservation of Parnassius apollo in Poland, Czechia, and Austria,” is creating habitats for butterflies and offering educational activities. This led to the idea of establishing Gardens for Apollo. These gardens are special spaces where we plant nectar-rich flowers for butterflies and host plants for Apollo caterpillars.

Each garden is built with the direct involvement of local site hosts, guided by our experts. Before any planting begins, we organize educational talks and workshops for both adults and children. Some gardens, especially smaller ones, focus more on education. For instance, school gardens highlight how changing garden management can attract pollinators. These small spaces also create conditions that support the growth of Parnassius apollo populations as individuals reintroduced nearby spread into these gardens.

Meanwhile, some larger Gardens for Apollo are designed as habitats where future butterfly reintroductions are planned. All of these gardens are located within the project’s activity area, known as the Land of the Apollo. This region is becoming known for not only its natural connection to the species but also its cultural significance, thanks to the project’s efforts.

This year, we’ve created four new Gardens for Apollo and revisited one established in 2023. Our garden season began in April with a visit to the Arts and Crafts School Complex in Jelenia Góra. Despite late sowing in June, we were pleased to find that the plants had germinated and spread. Together with the students, we sowed more seeds and installed a sign with information about the garden and the project. We hope the meadow continues to grow and becomes a feeding ground for many pollinators.

In May, we planted two Gardens for Apollo near the Ecocentre in Uniemyśl. At the Tatra Glamp camping site in Okrzeszyn, we talked about the Apollo butterfly and its habitat, and introduced our citizen science campaign, “Where is the Big White Butterfly?”. With the help of campsite guests and local residents, we prepared the ground, planted Sedum, and sowed seeds of meadow plants. We’re excited to continue working with them to expand nature education in the area.

Later in May, we participated in the annual Upper Lusatian Houses Open Day, where we organized a fair of local handicrafts and products. Alongside the visitors, we planted another Garden for Apollo at a small market near the local inn.

In between these activities, we also visited Primary School No. 1 in Kamienna Góra. The students there helped us create a Sedum “roundabout,” designed to gradually transform the school lawn into a flowering meadow. Working with these energetic children was both fun and productive!

Our biggest challenge came with the Garden for Apollo at the Parada Three Cultures House in Niedamirów. The venue’s beautiful setting and supportive atmosphere made it a fantastic event. Together with the team from the Karkonosze National Park, we held a family-friendly festival that included lectures, workshops, and, of course, gardening. We planted 10 acres of butterfly-friendly plants, and in the autumn, we’ll create a habitat using limestone aggregate and more Sedum. We’ll always remember that day and the inspiring conversations we had with participants. Next year, we hope the Apollo butterfly will visit Niedamirów and enjoy the garden as much as we did!

Looking ahead, we’re already brainstorming ideas for next year’s Gardens for Apollo. If you’re active or live in the Western Sudeten region and would like to start a garden with us, we’d love to hear from you!

#followapollo Monitoring Project news 

Dogs on a Mission: Conserving Wildlife with Naturschutzhunde

Posted By: Kamila Redererova 93 Views 0 Comment ,

Conservation efforts are evolving with new and innovative approaches. One of our most exciting tools is the Naturschutzhunde, or “conservation dogs”. These specially trained dogs are helping us protect nature and endangered species, playing a vital role in our conservation projects. Their incredible sense of smell makes them indispensable partners in our mission to preserve biodiversity.

Dogs have long served as valuable companions, but their roles have expanded far beyond traditional uses like hunting or guarding. Today, dogs are involved in many fields, including law enforcement, rescue operations, and now, conservation. Over the last 30 years, they have become essential in research and environmental protection projects, including the LIFEapollo2020 project and the Verein NATURSCHUTZHUNDE.

Naturschutzhund at work

What Are Naturschutzhunde?

Naturschutzhunde are detection dogs trained to find specific wildlife or environmental clues. These dogs can detect traces of elusive or rare species through clues like droppings, nests, feathers, or seeds. For example, they can identify the presence of wolves, helping to inform herding protection measures. They also help track species like lynxes, golden jackals, and wildcats, assisting conservationists in learning more about their distribution.

Here, Naturschutzhunde have become key members of our team, helping us monitor and protect endangered species. These dogs allow us to gather accurate data efficiently while minimizing human disturbance in sensitive areas.

Training the Dogs

Training a Naturschutzhund is a complex process. These dogs learn to detect species-specific markers like larvae, droppings, or nests. Once trained, they can cover large areas quickly and with great accuracy, detecting traces of wildlife that are invisible to the human eye.

The training, based on positive reinforcement, teaches dogs to recognize specific scents and clearly indicate them to their handlers. Suitable candidates for this work are physically fit dogs that enjoy using their noses and can work long hours in challenging terrain. This certification process ensures that the dogs meet high standards before they begin working in the field.

Parnassius apollo L. bartholomaeus Saalfelden-Stoßwand, ma2-33326.JPG
Apollo Butterfly

The Role of Naturschutzhunde in the LIFEapollo2020 Project

In the LIFEapollo2020 project, we rely on Naturschutzhunde to monitor and protect Apollo butterfly populations in Austria. This initiative aims to restore the butterfly’s populations across Austria, Poland, and the Czech Republic. The dogs play a critical role in these monitoring efforts across 15 regions in Austria.

Raupe ssp. vindobonensis, Maria Zell, Bürgeralpe 2012-33310.JPG
Apollo Buterfly Caterpillar

How Naturschutzhunde Help:

  1. Finding Larvae: Our dogs are trained to locate Apollo butterfly larvae in Sedum-rich areas, which are often difficult to reach. The dogs’ ability to detect larvae is essential to our work.
  2. Accessing Remote Areas: Many of the Apollo butterfly’s habitats are located in mountainous regions that are hard for humans to access. Naturschutzhunde help us cover these areas more effectively than human teams alone.

Achievements So Far

Thanks to Naturschutzhunde, we were able to detect Apollo butterfly larvae in several of the 15 areas we surveyed in 2023 and 2024. This has allowed us to protect key regions where butterfly populations remain active.

Naturschutzhunde have proven to be highly effective in various other conservation tasks as well. For instance, they are employed to locate the carcasses of birds and bats near wind turbines, helping us assess the impact of wind farms on protected species. Their superior sense of smell allows them to detect smaller remains in less time than humans.

Researching rare and hidden species often presents challenges, as direct observation is difficult. Scientists typically rely on indirect evidence like droppings, hair, or remains of prey. Naturschutzhunde are excellent at locating these traces, working much faster and more accurately than human researchers. Several of our dog-handler teams are already engaged in scientific projects, further advancing conservation efforts.

Conclusion

Naturschutzhunde have become vital partners in our mission to protect endangered species. Their work in the LIFEapollo2020 project highlights how effective they are in helping safeguard wildlife and fragile ecosystems. As we look to the future, we are confident that these conservation dogs will continue to play an essential role in preserving Austria’s—and Europe’s—natural heritage.

In a world where the connection between humans and nature is more critical than ever, Naturschutzhunde are helping bridge that gap. Their unique abilities allow them to protect endangered species while fostering a deeper bond between humans and the natural world

Monitoring 

New home for the Apollo in Krkonoše mountains

Posted By: Kamila Redererova 915 Views 0 Comment ,

In June, the Krkonoše Mountains briefly became home to the very rare Apollo butterfly. This butterfly is a relic from the Ice Age, and its natural habitat consists of sunlit mountain rocks with an abundance of flowering plants. It disappeared from Czech nature nearly a century ago due to the loss of its natural environment. Now, the Apollo butterfly faces an imminent threat even in our neighboring countries: in the Slovak and Polish Carpathians or the Austrian Alps. Their decline is also accelerated by climate change, as it’s simply getting too warm for them.

Conservation efforts to save the Parnassius Apollo

Our nature conservationists are trying to reverse this population decline by preserving its original habitats, but they are also working to create new, backup environments. Such a place has now been established in the Krkonoše Mountains. Since August 2022, intensive work has been done to clear the rocks, which will serve as a substitute habitat for these iconic butterflies. Soon after, the area saw the appearance of many flowering plants, and with them, butterflies such as the critically endangered small blue butterfly in Krkonoše, the swallowtail, the purple emperor, and numerous ringlets.

Testing the new habitat: Male-only butterfly release

It was time to let the site be tested by its future residents. For this purpose, a total of 100 males from a rescue breeding program were released, having already fulfilled their reproductive role, to live out their days here. Why only males, you might ask? Once each male fertilizes a female, he no longer has any purpose in breeding, whereas the females still need to lay eggs for the next generation and are essential for maintaining the population. If the release didn’t succeed, we wouldn’t be left with anything if we had released the entire population. The butterflies were numbered with a marker before release, both for monitoring purposes and to diminish their value to potential collectors.

Our method of releasing only males was met with skepticism shortly after being publicized. There were speculations that the males would search for females and leave the site, skewing our results. Today, we have processed data from repeated expert monitoring, and we can confirm that these theories did not hold true. Even in nature, male butterflies naturally hatch a few days earlier than females and must wait for them. The males behaved entirely normally on the site throughout the three weeks of regular monitoring, with no observed “flights” away from the site, and they remained quite vital for a long time.

Positive behavior and site attachment

The butterflies exhibited their typical behavior, including active patrolling, territorial battles with other males, and most importantly, spreading out across the site and evenly occupying the entire area with frequent contact among each other. This is crucial for them because, as has been observed in practice many times, this phenomenon leads to a stronger attachment of the butterflies to the site. In human terms, their logic says, “There are a lot of other butterflies here, so there must be more females too, and I like that.” Of course, in this case, we tricked the poor males a bit. However, the positive monitoring results indicate that the Apollos didn’t catch on to our ruse.

In summary, the monitoring showed absolutely great results, so we can consider the management part of the project focused on the adults to be successful (though not yet complete!). However, this is not the end of the story, as there still needs to be enough space provided for the Apollo butterflies’ host plants. This is another reason why we haven’t yet released the butterflies in full; everything must be perfect for this demanding butterfly to thrive in the Krkonoše Mountains.

Project news 

Volunteering for Apollo in Poland

Posted By: Maureen 502 Views 0 Comment

This post is written by Maria Gezela and Karolina Baranowska and includes a report about their volunteering experience for LIFE Apollo2020 in Poland.

Honestly, not everyone knows what species monitoring is like. That is why we are going to tell you a little bit about it. First of all, we were volunteers for two weeks in the Apollo Volunteering Program that was created in collaboration with Karkonoski Park Narodowy and Klub Przyrodników.

We started our journey on the first of July and got to know everyone that had also participated in this program and read about the biology of Parnassius apollo. On the second day, we got to know Roman, Grzegorz and Dariusz from Karkonoski Park Narodowy and we learned a lot about Parnassius apollo from them. Firstly, we visited Karkonoski Bank Genów in Jagniątków, where there is Parnassius apollo rearing and we saw and got to know about the process.

Then we went to two quarries “Gruszka” and “Miłek” and we had a chance to release the imago form. It was the first time when we had held the butterflies in our hands. We all tried to be gentle with them, they were so beautiful and really special, not like any other butterfly. On the third day we got to know all the reintroduction sites, how they look, where Sedum maximum and nectar-producing plants are. There were eleven reintroduction sites such as: Chojnik, Podzamcze, Sobiesz, Wały Cieplickie, Piastów, Krzyż Jubileuszowy, Góra Szybowcowa, Kamieniołom “Gruszka”, Kamieniołom “Miłek”, Bobrów and Kruczy Kamień.

On Thursday, we all went to Kruczy Kamień and we finally got a chance to learn the transect and CMR methods. Also It was our first time catching butterflies and it was such an amazing experience, which we learned a lot from. Then we went to Karczma Sądowa in Uniemyśl, which is Klub Przyrodników field station. We had some coffee and talked a little bit, got to know the story behind the restoration of this place, because a few years ago it was completly ruined.

On friday, Jacek, Dominika and Ola were monitoring Parnassius apollo in Cieplice, Piastów, Sobiesz, Podzamcze and Chojnik. Karolina and I went to the Klimatyczne Karkonosze event and we colored wooden magnets, earrings and keychains that looked like Parnassius apollo with the children. Also, we educated them about our extraordinary butterfly.

On Saturday, we monitored Parnassius apollo in Kruczy Kamień and it was a huge success for us, we catched 15 individuals in which 5 were new (2 females with sphragis and 3 males). After Kruczy Kamień we went to Bobrów where something funny happened. We all decided to go around this small part of the forest, but we didn’t expect that we would have to climb back to get to our car. In the end we finally got to our car, but it was so tiring.  On Sunday, Jacek, Dominika and Ola went to Krzyż Jubileuszowy and Góra Szybowcowa. Karolina and I went to “Gruszka” and “Miłek” quarries. That day, the weather wasn’t good, so we saw nothing. Then we had to say goodbye to Ola and Dominik because they were going back home that day. That’s how our first week ended, we learned a lot about monitoring and honestly about everything from Roman, Grzegorz, Dariusz and Kamila. They helped us a lot and to be honest, they are not only great teachers but also funny and helpful.

The second week, we started with another monitoring session. Karolina  and I went to Chojnik, Wały Cieplickie and Piastów. Jacek went to Sobiesz and Podzamcze. Despite the beautiful weather, we couldn’t find any butterflies in Wały Cieplickie, Piastów, Sobiesz and Podzamcze. Just as we needed to end the monitoring, I found one dead Parnassius apollo… right beside me. It was a female with sphragis and she had a number 298 on her wings. 

Of course, our day couldn’t end without some adventure. On the way back from Chojnik to our car, we found sheep in trouble. The sheep was tangled in an electric fence, which we had to turn off and free her from. We also met new volunteers – Ola, Łucja and Magda. We went for monitoring until Wednesday with the interns – Julia and Justyna. For a moment we felt like teachers, because we tried to tell them everything about the butterfly, his biology, monitoring etc.

Thursday and Friday were days off for me and Karolina. On those days, we were able to rest and relax. Beside me, because I needed to defend my bachelor’s degree and I had a lot of problems on my way back to Jelenia Góra, because there was a problem with all trains to and from Wrocław. Luckily, my mum came to rescue me and drove me back to Jelenia Góra.

On Thursday, we also had the opportunity to learn a few things while catching bats. It was a great experience and we all had a lot of fun. On friday, Karolina and I went hiking. We did 16 km and also we were really lucky to see the blackgrouse on our way. It was shocking.

Saturday was our last day of monitoring, Karolina, Jacek and I went to “Gruszka” and “Miłek”, sadly we couldn’t find any butterflies. Magda, Łucja and Ola went to Bobrów, Sobiesz, Podzamcze and there were no butterflies. This last day was hard for us, because our volunteer time was coming to an end but we all had a lot of fun through all these days and  it was such an amazing experience.

#followapollo 

The effect of climate change on the Parnassius Apollo butterfly

Posted By: Maureen 269 Views 0 Comment ,

Written by Maureen Nieuwschepen

This article is the second in a two-part, scientifically-based series on Parnassius apollo.

Worldwide climate change effects – changing weather patterns and shifting temperature ranges

Climate change, caused by increased levels of greenhouse gasses, is leading to changing weather patterns and an increase in extreme weather events worldwide (Scott, 2016), with an increase in daily temperature and precipitation extremes especially. For example, there has been an increase in daily record-high temperatures in Europe compared to daily record-low temperatures and this ratio is projected to increase in the future (Ummenhofer & Meehl, 2017). As air temperature increases, air water holding capacity will also change, influencing precipitation patterns. Heavy rainfall events and the duration of dry periods are increasing and are expected to increase in intensity in the future (Scott, 2016), thereby negatively affecting terrestrial ecosystem production across biomes (Zhang et al., 2013). Other climate change effects significantly impacting terrestrial ecosystems are, for example, increased numbers of heat waves and wildfires (Ummenhofer & Meehl, 2017).

For Europe specifically, climate change has led to an earlier onset of summer, with a change of ~10 days between 1960 and 2000 (Cassou & Cattiaux, 2016). The projected effects of climate change on terrestrial Europe are looking grim. Not only is Europe subjected to worldwide trends in climate change-induced weather effects, such as increases in precipitation extremes and severity of droughts, but Europe also faces unique challenges according to climate prediction models (Carvalho et al., 2021).  Mean temperatures have increased almost double compared to the global average rate (Harris et al., 2014). This trend is predicted to persist in the future, with the highest relative temperature increase in Iberia, the Mediterranean, the Alps, Scandinavia, and Eastern and Northern Europe (IPCC, 2018). 

Climate change effects specifically for central Europe and P. apollo habitats 

Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758) habitats are mainly located in central European highlands. Climate change disproportionately affects mountainous areas, with more severe temperature rises than other ecosystems (Nogués-Bravo et al., 2007). Also, mountains are unique in their gradient of microhabitats along an altitudinal scale, which makes them harder to place into generalizable patterns. An upward shift in the distribution of plant and animal species has already been detected in European mountain areas (Lenoir et al., 2008), as temperatures are generally lower at higher altitudes. For plants, it is already established that the projected habitat loss is more significant for species found at higher elevations. 36-55% of alpine species, 31-51% of subalpine species, and 19-46% of montane species can lose over 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070-2100 (Engler et al., 2011). 

Effect on P. apollo

Temperature increases

As P. apollo habitats are situated in mountain areas, they have been and are subjected to climate change to a severe extent. Firstly, increasing temperatures drive butterflies northwards. During the last few decades, P. apollo retracted northwards along both the northern and southern boundaries of its range (Parmesan et al., 1999).  Another response to the rising temperatures might be the earlier onset of larval hatching. 

In the French Brançon region of the Alps, populations exhibited earlier larval hatching, along with a one-month shift in the emergence of flying adults in biotopes above 1900 a.s.l. (Descimon et al., 2005).

Weather anomalies

Weather anomalies caused by climate change might have catastrophic effects on P. apollo populations. Several events have been documented that caused big declines in population sizes or caused bottlenecks. The events have been documented before the year 2000 but do show the vulnerability of Apollo populations to weather anomalies.

In the Pieniny mountains in 1957, following an early and warm spring, a prolonged period of cold and rainy weather accompanied by snowfall in July caused a bottleneck for the regional P. apollo populations (Żukowski 1959). As males emerge from pupae earlier than females, those emerging in June could not mate due to the absence of females. Subsequently, when females did appear after the cold weather, only a limited number were fertilized as only a few males survived. 

A ‘false spring’ event in winter, i.e., a warm period followed by a return of the cold, in the late 1980s caused the decline of P. apollo populations in the southern part of the Central Massif in France (Descimon et al., 2005). A repetition of the event ten years later caused the complete extinction of these populations.

P. apollo larvae are adapted to low ambient temperatures, including temperatures below 0°C. The dark pigmentation of their cuticle enables rapid warming in sunlight for feeding. This trait is considered crucial in mountain habitats, where the maximum daily temperature rarely exceeds 15°C during the larval development stage (Richarz et al., 1989). However, larvae are highly susceptible to humidity. On cold and rainy days, larvae stop feeding and significantly reduce their locomotion. Consequently, extended periods of heavy rainfall, especially when combined with low ambient temperatures, decrease larval development and increase mortality rates (Descimon et al., 2005). However, temperatures above 40°C may also significantly increase larval mortality rates as they become more prone to developing opportunistic diseases, i.e., infections (Descimon et al., 2005). 

Natural forest expansion

Across Europe, forests are common climax ecosystems, especially in the central and northern regions of the continent. The progression of forest succession significantly challenges P. apollo populations, leading to the fragmentation of habitats and reducing the food plant availability for both larvae and adults (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). So far, this process has mostly affected lowland areas. Consequently, natural succession of forests has been mostly threatening ‘telephiophagous’ forms, i.e., feeding on S. telephium, of P. apollo, rather than the forms feeding on S. album.

However, the alpine grasslands above the treeline inhabited by P. apollo are also severely threatened by climate change due to upward forest expansion driven by increasing temperatures (Hülber et al., 2020).  This means that the albophagous forms are also threatened, especially when taking the predictions for temperature increase at higher altitude into consideration.

Conclusion

 Climate change affects both P. apollo populations, the availability of host plants for caterpillars and habitat persistence. Small and isolated populations are more susceptible to extreme weather conditions, which can lead to a bottleneck effect or complete extinction of the local population. Efficient conservation strategies are essential for the survival of the species, and will enhance habitat conditions for other species thriving in similar environments.  Projects like LIFE Apollo2020 are crucial in developing and implementing these strategies, playing a vital role in the conservation of P. apollo.

Bibliography

Descimon, H. (1995). La conservation des Parnassius en France: aspects zoogéographiques, écologiques, démographiques et génétiques (Vol. 1, pp. 1-54). Editions OPIE.

Descimon, H., Bachelard, P., Boitier, E., & Pierrat, V. (2005). Decline and extinction of Parnassius apollo populations in France-continued. Studies on the Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies in Europe, 1, 114-115.

Engler, R., Randin, C. F., Thuiller, W., Dullinger, S., Zimmermann, N. E., Araujo, M. B., … & Guisan, A. (2011). 21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe. Global change biology, 17(7), 2330-2341.

Harris, I. P. D. J., Jones, P. D., Osborn, T. J., & Lister, D. H. (2014). Updated high‐resolution grids of monthly climatic observations–the CRU TS3. 10 Dataset. International journal of climatology, 34(3), 623-642. 

Hülber, K., Kuttner, M., Moser, D., Rabitsch, W., Schindler, S., Wessely, J., … & Dullinger, S. (2020). Habitat availability disproportionally amplifies climate change risks for lowland compared to alpine species. Global Ecology and Conservation, 23, e01113.

IPCC 2018: Special Report Global Warming of 1.5°C. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

Lenoir, J., Gégout, J. C., Marquet, P. A., de Ruffray, P., & Brisse, H. (2008). A significant upward shift in plant species optimum elevation during the 20th century. Science, 320(5884), 1768-1771.

Nakonieczny, M., Kedziorski, A., & Michalczyk, K. (2007). Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo L.) in Europe–its history, decline and perspectives of conservation. Functional Ecosystems and Communities, 1(1), 56-79.

Nogués-Bravo, D., Araújo, M. B., Errea, M. P., & Martínez-Rica, J. P. (2007). Exposure of global mountain systems to climate warming during the 21st Century. Global environmental change, 17(3-4), 420-428.

Massolo, A., Fric, Z. F., & Sbaraglia, C. (2022). Climate Change Effects on Habitat Suitability of a Butterfly in the Past, Present, and Future: Biotic Interaction between Parnassius apollo and Its Host Plants. University of Pisa.

Parmesan, C., Ryrholm, N., Stefanescu, C., Hill, J. K., Thomas, C. D., Descimon, H., … & Warren, M. (1999). Poleward shifts in geographical ranges of butterfly species associated with regional warming. Nature, 399(6736), 579-583.

Richarz, N., Neumann, D., & Wipking, W. (1989). Untersuchungen zur ökologie des Apollofalters (Parnassius apollo vinningensis, Stichel 1899, Lepidoptera, Papilionidae) im Weinbaugebiet der unteren Mosel. Mitt der Assoc Rheinisch-Westfälischer Lepidopterologen, 5, 108-259.

Zhang, Y., Susan Moran, M., Nearing, M. A., Ponce Campos, G. E., Huete, A. R., Buda, A. R., … & Starks, P. J. (2013). Extreme precipitation patterns and reductions of terrestrial ecosystem production across biomes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 118(1), 148-157.Żukowski, R. (1959). Problemy zaniku i wymierania motyla Parnassius apollo L. na ziemiach polskich. Sylwan, 103(06-07).

Project news 

LIFE Apollo2020 Partner Meeting and Monitoring Visit in Saalfelden, Austria

Posted By: Maureen 403 Views 0 Comment

From July 22nd to 26th, 2024, the partners of LIFE Apollo2020 gathered in Saalfelden, Austria, for their annual meeting. This yearly event provides opportunity for all partners to engage in discussions, share updates, and collaborate on strategies to work towards the project’s goals. We had the pleasure to also welcome EU representatives Gustavo Becerra-Jurado from CINEA and Edyta Owadowska-Cornil from ELMEN EEIG, who shared their insights and assistence in regard to the project.

Day 1: Office day and Apollo habitat visit

The first day was dedicated to presentations and discussions. This “office day” allowed partners to discuss the projects’ progress and challenges. Meeting in person contributed to shared learning and collaborative problem-solving. As a refreshment break, we visited a local Apollo butterfly habitat (Stossengraben). The day concluded with a joint dinner.

Part of the mobile exhibition
Meeting room
Hybrid meeting
Stoissengraben

Day 2: Habitat visits in East Tyrol

On day 2, we visited the project habitats in East Tyrol, including Virgen, Hinterbichl, Leisach, and Mörtschach. The highlight of the day was witnessing Apollo butterflies flying in Hinterbichl. To see the butterflies flying is a great motivation for everyone to do even more to conserve the Apollo butterfly species. The journey back to Saalfelden was equally memorable, as we took the scenic high alpine Grossglockner Road. The good weather allowed some breathtaking views of the Austrian Alps along the way.

Virgen
Apollo in Hinterbichl
Hinterbichl
Leisach
Grossglockner High Alpine Road
Pasterze gletscher

Day 3: Habitat and breeding station visits and meeting conclusion

On the final day, we visited the habitats close to Saalfelden: Lofer and Fieberbrunn. In Lofer, we had the pleasure to watch a demonstration by dr. Leo Slotta-Bachmay from Naturschutzhunde and his dog, showing how trained dogs are used to search for and monitor caterpillars. The demonstration was very informative and inspiring, highlighting the many possibilities in which dogs can assist humans in reaching their goals. After the habitats, we visited the breeding station in Saalfelden, where Otto Feldner provided an in-depth look at the breeding process of Apollo butterflies. He has been breeding Apollo butterflies for more than 30 years and we could appreciate his dedication to reintroducing the species into its natural habitat.

Lofer
Demonstration Naturschutzhunde
Fieberbrunn
Breeding station
Breeding station
Breeding station

We used the final closure meeting on day 3 to reflect on the insights gained and to outline the next steps for the project.

The team in Mörtschach

The 2024 LIFE Apollo2020 partner meeting in Saalfelden was a success, offering valuable opportunities for fruitful discussions, collaboration, and inspiration. With renewed energy, partners returned home, ready to continue their important work in preserving the Apollo butterfly.

#followapollo 

Migratory history and ecology of the Apollo butterfly

Posted By: Maureen 1472 Views 0 Comment ,

Written by Maureen Nieuwschepen


This article is the first in a two-part, scientifically-based series on Parnassius apollo.

Origin and migratory history

The Parnassius genus first originated in Laurasia (now West-China, Fig. 1) in the early Paleogen (about 65 million years ago). The collision of the Indian tectonic plate into the Asian continent, during the Miocene epoch (23.03 – 5.33 million years ago), resulted in the formation of the Himalayan mountain ranges in Central Asia and thereby a dramatic change in habitats. The Himalayan plateau blocked the Asian monsoon and reduced precipitation in Central Asia (Quade et al., 1989), which led to an increase in steppe plants. The changes in biotic (host plant shift) and abiotic (climate change and orogeny (i.e. mountain formation by converging tectonic plates)) conditions led to the first large-scale radiation of Parnassius into more than 50 species (Condamine et al., 2018). 

Figure 1. World map showing the origin and radiation center of the genus Parnassius (orange) and the approximate current distribution of Parnassius apollo (blue). Information retrieved from Nakonieczny et al., 2007.

Further diversification

One Parnassius species, Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758), dispersed far westward towards Europe and northwards until the permanent snow cover border (Nakonieczny et al., 2007).  During this time, it was still a vast steppe species. The first glaciation in Europe drove P. apollo southwards into refuges (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). Further subsequent glacial-interglacial cycles fueled the expansion and retraction of P. apollo and its occupations and withdrawals in and out of refuges. These ongoing dynamics most probably have led to the further subspecific evolution within P. apollo, leading to over  200 described subspecies in Europe (Todisco et al., 2010). Similar, but to a lesser extent dynamic, processes occurred in the Asian P. apollo range, explaining the difference in subspecies variety between Europa and Asia.

Current distribution

The shrinking steppe habitat in Europe posed selective pressure on P. apollo, leading to a gradual change from a typical steppe species to a mountain-steppe species (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). Now, P. Apollo is considered a steppe and mountain-subalpine-sub boreal species, occupying many different habitats in a wide distribution range (Descimon, 1995).  Its extensive Palaearctic range spans from 7° W (Cantabrian Mountains, Spain) to 120° E (Yakutia, Russia), including the Khentei Mountains in Mongolia. Its latitudinal distribution spans from 62° N (western Finland and Oppland, Norway) to approximately 38° N (Sierra Gádor in Spain, La Madonie massif in Sicily, Mt. Erímanthos in Greece, and West Taurus massif in northeastern Turkey) (summarized from several sources by Nakonieczny et al., 2007)(Fig. 1).

Description

The appearance of P. Apollo makes it one of Europe’s most iconic butterflies, with its 50-80 mm wingspan, chalk-white wings, grey markings, and black and red spots. Males and females differ in their patterns on the fore and hindwings, indicating sexual dimorphism. The different subspecies vary in size, wing shape, and wing pattern. However, the red spots are always present on the hindwings (Bonin et al., 2024).

Figure 2. Female Parnassius apollo

Apollo habitats in Europe

P. Apollo habitats in Europe typically consist of dry calcareous grasslands and steppes in upland areas, and alpine and subalpine grassland. Rocky habitats and screes are also suitable, but below an altitude limit dependent on the mountain range (up to 1,800 m a.s.l. in the Carpathians, 2,500 m a.s.l. in the Alps, and 3,000 m a.s.l. in the Sierra Nevada (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). Regardless of habitat type, the availability of suitable food plants for the larvae is crucial.  

Figure 3. Map of Europe with Parnassius apollo distribution in blue ( Information retrieved from Nakonieczny et al., 2007.)

Host plants

P. apollo is an oligophagous species, i.e., it is restricted to a few specific food sources. Larvae (caterpillars) feed on Sedum album (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 4) or Hylotelephium telephium (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 5) (Nakonieczny & Kędziorski, 2005). These are Sedum species, or stonecrop, which can live in dry conditions due to their CAM strategy (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) (Wai et al., 2019). Lowland P. apollo populations primarily feed on H. telephium, as it grows in open forests and meadows. In contrast, higher altitude P. apollo populations predominantly feed on S. album, a species found in calcareous rocky environments (Stephenson, 1994).  This divides European P. apollo populations into ‘telephiophagous’ forms, feeding on H. telephium and ‘albophagous’ forms, feeding on S. album. Flying adult butterflies rely on a broader range of nectariferous plants for their nectar source, depending on the availability in the area (Massolo et al., 2022).

Figure 4. Sedum album
Figure 5. Hylotelephium telephium

Life cycle

The P. Apollo life cycle (Fig. 6) lasts one year and is univoltine, i.e., overwintering in the egg stage (Bonin et al, 2024).  Females lay eggs that remain dormant over the winter and hatch in the spring of the following year.  The larvae feed on the host plants until they develop fully in size while going through several molts. After this phase, the caterpillar turns into metamorphosis, becoming a pupa. The pupa does not feed but relies on the energy stored from the food it consumed as a larva (Gilbert et al., 1996).  While in the pupa state, the metamorphosis of larva to adult butterfly occurs through a complex series of biochemical reactions, controlled by neural and hormonal mechanisms (Gilbert et al., 1996). 

Figure 6. Photos of all P. apollo life stages, i.e., egg, caterpillar, pupa, and imago

Bibliography

Bonin, L., Jeromen, M., & Jeran, M. (2024). Endangered Butterflies and Their Conservation: the Decline of Parnassius apollo and Phengaris spp. in Europe and Slovenia. Proceedings of Socratic Lectures. 10, 117-125.

Condamine, F. L., Rolland, J., Höhna, S., Sperling, F. A., & Sanmartín, I. (2018). Testing the role of the Red Queen and Court Jester as drivers of the macroevolution of Apollo butterflies. Systematic biology, 67(6), 940-964.

Descimon, H., Bachelard, P., Boitier, E., & Pierrat, V. (2005). Decline and extinction of Parnassius apollo populations in France-continued. Studies on the Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies in Europe, 1, 114-115.

Gilbert, S. F., Opitz, J. M., & Raff, R. A. (1996). Resynthesizing evolutionary and developmental biology. Developmental biology, 173(2), 357-372.

Massolo, A., Fric, Z. F., & Sbaraglia, C. (2022). Climate Change Effects on Habitat Suitability of a Butterfly in the Past, Present, and Future: Biotic Interaction between Parnassius Apollo and Its Host Plants. University of Pisa.

Nakonieczny, M., & Kędziorski, A. (2005). Feeding preferences of the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo ssp. frankenbergeri) larvae inhabiting the Pieniny Mts (southern Poland). Comptes rendus. Biologies, 328(3), 235-242.

Nakonieczny, M., Kedziorski, A., & Michalczyk, K. (2007). Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo L.) in Europe–its history, decline and perspectives of conservation. Functional Ecosystems and Communities, 1(1), 56-79.

Quade, J., Cerling, T. E., & Bowman, J. R. (1989). Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan. Nature, 342(6246), 163-166.

Stephenson, R. (1994). Sedum: cultivated stonecrops. Timber press, Portland. (pp. 335-pp).

Todisco, V., Gratton, P., Cesaroni, D., & Sbordoni, V. (2010). Phylogeography of Parnassius apollo: hints on taxonomy and conservation of a vulnerable glacial butterfly invader. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 101(1), 169-183

Wai, C. M., Weise, S. E., Ozersky, P., Mockler, T. C., Michael, T. P., & VanBuren, R. (2019). Time of day and network reprogramming during drought induced CAM photosynthesis in Sedum album. PLoS genetics, 15(6), e1008209.