Author: Maureen

Project news 

Volunteering for Apollo in Poland

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This post is written by Maria Gezela and Karolina Baranowska and includes a report about their volunteering experience for LIFE Apollo2020 in Poland.

Honestly, not everyone knows what species monitoring is like. That is why we are going to tell you a little bit about it. First of all, we were volunteers for two weeks in the Apollo Volunteering Program that was created in collaboration with Karkonoski Park Narodowy and Klub Przyrodników.

We started our journey on the first of July and got to know everyone that had also participated in this program and read about the biology of Parnassius apollo. On the second day, we got to know Roman, Grzegorz and Dariusz from Karkonoski Park Narodowy and we learned a lot about Parnassius apollo from them. Firstly, we visited Karkonoski Bank Genów in Jagniątków, where there is Parnassius apollo rearing and we saw and got to know about the process.

Then we went to two quarries “Gruszka” and “Miłek” and we had a chance to release the imago form. It was the first time when we had held the butterflies in our hands. We all tried to be gentle with them, they were so beautiful and really special, not like any other butterfly. On the third day we got to know all the reintroduction sites, how they look, where Sedum maximum and nectar-producing plants are. There were eleven reintroduction sites such as: Chojnik, Podzamcze, Sobiesz, Wały Cieplickie, Piastów, Krzyż Jubileuszowy, Góra Szybowcowa, Kamieniołom “Gruszka”, Kamieniołom “Miłek”, Bobrów and Kruczy Kamień.

On Thursday, we all went to Kruczy Kamień and we finally got a chance to learn the transect and CMR methods. Also It was our first time catching butterflies and it was such an amazing experience, which we learned a lot from. Then we went to Karczma Sądowa in Uniemyśl, which is Klub Przyrodników field station. We had some coffee and talked a little bit, got to know the story behind the restoration of this place, because a few years ago it was completly ruined.

On friday, Jacek, Dominika and Ola were monitoring Parnassius apollo in Cieplice, Piastów, Sobiesz, Podzamcze and Chojnik. Karolina and I went to the Klimatyczne Karkonosze event and we colored wooden magnets, earrings and keychains that looked like Parnassius apollo with the children. Also, we educated them about our extraordinary butterfly.

On Saturday, we monitored Parnassius apollo in Kruczy Kamień and it was a huge success for us, we catched 15 individuals in which 5 were new (2 females with sphragis and 3 males). After Kruczy Kamień we went to Bobrów where something funny happened. We all decided to go around this small part of the forest, but we didn’t expect that we would have to climb back to get to our car. In the end we finally got to our car, but it was so tiring.  On Sunday, Jacek, Dominika and Ola went to Krzyż Jubileuszowy and Góra Szybowcowa. Karolina and I went to “Gruszka” and “Miłek” quarries. That day, the weather wasn’t good, so we saw nothing. Then we had to say goodbye to Ola and Dominik because they were going back home that day. That’s how our first week ended, we learned a lot about monitoring and honestly about everything from Roman, Grzegorz, Dariusz and Kamila. They helped us a lot and to be honest, they are not only great teachers but also funny and helpful.

The second week, we started with another monitoring session. Karolina  and I went to Chojnik, Wały Cieplickie and Piastów. Jacek went to Sobiesz and Podzamcze. Despite the beautiful weather, we couldn’t find any butterflies in Wały Cieplickie, Piastów, Sobiesz and Podzamcze. Just as we needed to end the monitoring, I found one dead Parnassius apollo… right beside me. It was a female with sphragis and she had a number 298 on her wings. 

Of course, our day couldn’t end without some adventure. On the way back from Chojnik to our car, we found sheep in trouble. The sheep was tangled in an electric fence, which we had to turn off and free her from. We also met new volunteers – Ola, Łucja and Magda. We went for monitoring until Wednesday with the interns – Julia and Justyna. For a moment we felt like teachers, because we tried to tell them everything about the butterfly, his biology, monitoring etc.

Thursday and Friday were days off for me and Karolina. On those days, we were able to rest and relax. Beside me, because I needed to defend my bachelor’s degree and I had a lot of problems on my way back to Jelenia Góra, because there was a problem with all trains to and from Wrocław. Luckily, my mum came to rescue me and drove me back to Jelenia Góra.

On Thursday, we also had the opportunity to learn a few things while catching bats. It was a great experience and we all had a lot of fun. On friday, Karolina and I went hiking. We did 16 km and also we were really lucky to see the blackgrouse on our way. It was shocking.

Saturday was our last day of monitoring, Karolina, Jacek and I went to “Gruszka” and “Miłek”, sadly we couldn’t find any butterflies. Magda, Łucja and Ola went to Bobrów, Sobiesz, Podzamcze and there were no butterflies. This last day was hard for us, because our volunteer time was coming to an end but we all had a lot of fun through all these days and  it was such an amazing experience.

#followapollo 

The effect of climate change on the Apollo butterfly

Posted By: Maureen 88 Views 0 Comment ,

Written by Maureen Nieuwschepen

This article is the second in a two-part, scientifically-based series on Parnassius apollo.

Worldwide climate change effects – changing weather patterns and shifting temperature ranges

Climate change, caused by increased levels of greenhouse gasses, is leading to changing weather patterns and an increase in extreme weather events worldwide (Scott, 2016), with an increase in daily temperature and precipitation extremes especially. For example, there has been an increase in daily record-high temperatures in Europe compared to daily record-low temperatures and this ratio is projected to increase in the future (Ummenhofer & Meehl, 2017). As air temperature increases, air water holding capacity will also change, influencing precipitation patterns. Heavy rainfall events and the duration of dry periods are increasing and are expected to increase in intensity in the future (Scott, 2016), thereby negatively affecting terrestrial ecosystem production across biomes (Zhang et al., 2013). Other climate change effects significantly impacting terrestrial ecosystems are, for example, increased numbers of heat waves and wildfires (Ummenhofer & Meehl, 2017).

For Europe specifically, climate change has led to an earlier onset of summer, with a change of ~10 days between 1960 and 2000 (Cassou & Cattiaux, 2016). The projected effects of climate change on terrestrial Europe are looking grim. Not only is Europe subjected to worldwide trends in climate change-induced weather effects, such as increases in precipitation extremes and severity of droughts, but Europe also faces unique challenges according to climate prediction models (Carvalho et al., 2021).  Mean temperatures have increased almost double compared to the global average rate (Harris et al., 2014). This trend is predicted to persist in the future, with the highest relative temperature increase in Iberia, the Mediterranean, the Alps, Scandinavia, and Eastern and Northern Europe (IPCC, 2018). 

Climate change effects specifically for central Europe and P. apollo habitats 

Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758) habitats are mainly located in central European highlands. Climate change disproportionately affects mountainous areas, with more severe temperature rises than other ecosystems (Nogués-Bravo et al., 2007). Also, mountains are unique in their gradient of microhabitats along an altitudinal scale, which makes them harder to place into generalizable patterns. An upward shift in the distribution of plant and animal species has already been detected in European mountain areas (Lenoir et al., 2008), as temperatures are generally lower at higher altitudes. For plants, it is already established that the projected habitat loss is more significant for species found at higher elevations. 36-55% of alpine species, 31-51% of subalpine species, and 19-46% of montane species can lose over 80% of their suitable habitat by 2070-2100 (Engler et al., 2011). 

Effect on P. apollo

Temperature increases

As P. apollo habitats are situated in mountain areas, they have been and are subjected to climate change to a severe extent. Firstly, increasing temperatures drive butterflies northwards. During the last few decades, P. apollo retracted northwards along both the northern and southern boundaries of its range (Parmesan et al., 1999).  Another response to the rising temperatures might be the earlier onset of larval hatching. 

In the French Brançon region of the Alps, populations exhibited earlier larval hatching, along with a one-month shift in the emergence of flying adults in biotopes above 1900 a.s.l. (Descimon et al., 2005).

Weather anomalies

Weather anomalies caused by climate change might have catastrophic effects on P. apollo populations. Several events have been documented that caused big declines in population sizes or caused bottlenecks. The events have been documented before the year 2000 but do show the vulnerability of Apollo populations to weather anomalies.

In the Pieniny mountains in 1957, following an early and warm spring, a prolonged period of cold and rainy weather accompanied by snowfall in July caused a bottleneck for the regional P. apollo populations (Żukowski 1959). As males emerge from pupae earlier than females, those emerging in June could not mate due to the absence of females. Subsequently, when females did appear after the cold weather, only a limited number were fertilized as only a few males survived. 

A ‘false spring’ event in winter, i.e., a warm period followed by a return of the cold, in the late 1980s caused the decline of P. apollo populations in the southern part of the Central Massif in France (Descimon et al., 2005). A repetition of the event ten years later caused the complete extinction of these populations.

P. apollo larvae are adapted to low ambient temperatures, including temperatures below 0°C. The dark pigmentation of their cuticle enables rapid warming in sunlight for feeding. This trait is considered crucial in mountain habitats, where the maximum daily temperature rarely exceeds 15°C during the larval development stage (Richarz et al., 1989). However, larvae are highly susceptible to humidity. On cold and rainy days, larvae stop feeding and significantly reduce their locomotion. Consequently, extended periods of heavy rainfall, especially when combined with low ambient temperatures, decrease larval development and increase mortality rates (Descimon et al., 2005). However, temperatures above 40°C may also significantly increase larval mortality rates as they become more prone to developing opportunistic diseases, i.e., infections (Descimon et al., 2005). 

Natural forest expansion

Across Europe, forests are common climax ecosystems, especially in the central and northern regions of the continent. The progression of forest succession significantly challenges P. apollo populations, leading to the fragmentation of habitats and reducing the food plant availability for both larvae and adults (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). So far, this process has mostly affected lowland areas. Consequently, natural succession of forests has been mostly threatening ‘telephiophagous’ forms, i.e., feeding on S. telephium, of P. apollo, rather than the forms feeding on S. album.

However, the alpine grasslands above the treeline inhabited by P. apollo are also severely threatened by climate change due to upward forest expansion driven by increasing temperatures (Hülber et al., 2020).  This means that the albophagous forms are also threatened, especially when taking the predictions for temperature increase at higher altitude into consideration.

Conclusion

 Climate change affects both P. apollo populations, the availability of host plants for caterpillars and habitat persistence. Small and isolated populations are more susceptible to extreme weather conditions, which can lead to a bottleneck effect or complete extinction of the local population. Efficient conservation strategies are essential for the survival of the species, and will enhance habitat conditions for other species thriving in similar environments.  Projects like LIFE Apollo2020 are crucial in developing and implementing these strategies, playing a vital role in the conservation of P. apollo.

Bibliography

Descimon, H. (1995). La conservation des Parnassius en France: aspects zoogéographiques, écologiques, démographiques et génétiques (Vol. 1, pp. 1-54). Editions OPIE.

Descimon, H., Bachelard, P., Boitier, E., & Pierrat, V. (2005). Decline and extinction of Parnassius apollo populations in France-continued. Studies on the Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies in Europe, 1, 114-115.

Engler, R., Randin, C. F., Thuiller, W., Dullinger, S., Zimmermann, N. E., Araujo, M. B., … & Guisan, A. (2011). 21st century climate change threatens mountain flora unequally across Europe. Global change biology, 17(7), 2330-2341.

Harris, I. P. D. J., Jones, P. D., Osborn, T. J., & Lister, D. H. (2014). Updated high‐resolution grids of monthly climatic observations–the CRU TS3. 10 Dataset. International journal of climatology, 34(3), 623-642. 

Hülber, K., Kuttner, M., Moser, D., Rabitsch, W., Schindler, S., Wessely, J., … & Dullinger, S. (2020). Habitat availability disproportionally amplifies climate change risks for lowland compared to alpine species. Global Ecology and Conservation, 23, e01113.

IPCC 2018: Special Report Global Warming of 1.5°C. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

Lenoir, J., Gégout, J. C., Marquet, P. A., de Ruffray, P., & Brisse, H. (2008). A significant upward shift in plant species optimum elevation during the 20th century. Science, 320(5884), 1768-1771.

Nakonieczny, M., Kedziorski, A., & Michalczyk, K. (2007). Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo L.) in Europe–its history, decline and perspectives of conservation. Functional Ecosystems and Communities, 1(1), 56-79.

Nogués-Bravo, D., Araújo, M. B., Errea, M. P., & Martínez-Rica, J. P. (2007). Exposure of global mountain systems to climate warming during the 21st Century. Global environmental change, 17(3-4), 420-428.

Massolo, A., Fric, Z. F., & Sbaraglia, C. (2022). Climate Change Effects on Habitat Suitability of a Butterfly in the Past, Present, and Future: Biotic Interaction between Parnassius apollo and Its Host Plants. University of Pisa.

Parmesan, C., Ryrholm, N., Stefanescu, C., Hill, J. K., Thomas, C. D., Descimon, H., … & Warren, M. (1999). Poleward shifts in geographical ranges of butterfly species associated with regional warming. Nature, 399(6736), 579-583.

Richarz, N., Neumann, D., & Wipking, W. (1989). Untersuchungen zur ökologie des Apollofalters (Parnassius apollo vinningensis, Stichel 1899, Lepidoptera, Papilionidae) im Weinbaugebiet der unteren Mosel. Mitt der Assoc Rheinisch-Westfälischer Lepidopterologen, 5, 108-259.

Zhang, Y., Susan Moran, M., Nearing, M. A., Ponce Campos, G. E., Huete, A. R., Buda, A. R., … & Starks, P. J. (2013). Extreme precipitation patterns and reductions of terrestrial ecosystem production across biomes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 118(1), 148-157.Żukowski, R. (1959). Problemy zaniku i wymierania motyla Parnassius apollo L. na ziemiach polskich. Sylwan, 103(06-07).

Project news 

LIFE Apollo2020 Partner Meeting and Monitoring Visit in Saalfelden, Austria

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From July 22nd to 26th, 2024, the partners of LIFE Apollo2020 gathered in Saalfelden, Austria, for their annual meeting. This yearly event provides opportunity for all partners to engage in discussions, share updates, and collaborate on strategies to work towards the project’s goals. We had the pleasure to also welcome EU representatives Gustavo Becerra-Jurado from CINEA and Edyta Owadowska-Cornil from ELMEN EEIG, who shared their insights and assistence in regard to the project.

Day 1: Office day and Apollo habitat visit

The first day was dedicated to presentations and discussions. This “office day” allowed partners to discuss the projects’ progress and challenges. Meeting in person contributed to shared learning and collaborative problem-solving. As a refreshment break, we visited a local Apollo butterfly habitat (Stossengraben). The day concluded with a joint dinner.

Part of the mobile exhibition
Meeting room
Hybrid meeting
Stossengraben

Day 2: Habitat visits in East Tyrol

On day 2, we visited the project habitats in East Tyrol, including Virgen, Hinterbichl, Leisach, and Mörtschach. The highlight of the day was witnessing Apollo butterflies flying in Hinterbichl. To see the butterflies flying is a great motivation for everyone to do even more to conserve the Apollo butterfly species. The journey back to Saalfelden was equally memorable, as we took the scenic high alpine Grossglockner Road. The good weather allowed some breathtaking views of the Austrian Alps along the way.

Virgen
Apollo in Hinterbichl
Hinterbichl
Leisach
Grossglockner High Alpine Road
Pasterze gletscher

Day 3: Habitat and breeding station visits and meeting conclusion

On the final day, we visited the habitats close to Saalfelden: Lofer and Fieberbrunn. In Lofer, we had the pleasure to watch a demonstration by dr. Leo Slotta-Bachmay from Naturschutzhunde and his dog, showing how trained dogs are used to search for and monitor caterpillars. The demonstration was very informative and inspiring, highlighting the many possibilities in which dogs can assist humans in reaching their goals. After the habitats, we visited the breeding station in Saalfelden, where Otto Feldner provided an in-depth look at the breeding process of Apollo butterflies. He has been breeding Apollo butterflies for more than 30 years and we could appreciate his dedication to reintroducing the species into its natural habitat.

Lofer
Demonstration Naturschutzhunde
Fieberbrunn
Breeding station
Breeding station
Breeding station

We used the final closure meeting on day 3 to reflect on the insights gained and to outline the next steps for the project.

The team in Mörtschach

The 2024 LIFE Apollo2020 partner meeting in Saalfelden was a success, offering valuable opportunities for fruitful discussions, collaboration, and inspiration. With renewed energy, partners returned home, ready to continue their important work in preserving the Apollo butterfly.

#followapollo 

Migratory history and ecology of the Apollo butterfly

Posted By: Maureen 131 Views 0 Comment ,

Written by Maureen Nieuwschepen


This article is the first in a two-part, scientifically-based series on Parnassius apollo.

Origin and migratory history

The Parnassius genus first originated in Laurasia (now West-China, Fig. 1) in the early Paleogen (about 65 million years ago). The collision of the Indian tectonic plate into the Asian continent, during the Miocene epoch (23.03 – 5.33 million years ago), resulted in the formation of the Himalayan mountain ranges in Central Asia and thereby a dramatic change in habitats. The Himalayan plateau blocked the Asian monsoon and reduced precipitation in Central Asia (Quade et al., 1989), which led to an increase in steppe plants. The changes in biotic (host plant shift) and abiotic (climate change and orogeny (i.e. mountain formation by converging tectonic plates)) conditions led to the first large-scale radiation of Parnassius into more than 50 species (Condamine et al., 2018). 

Figure 1. World map showing the origin and radiation center of the genus Parnassius (orange) and the approximate current distribution of Parnassius apollo (blue). Information retrieved from Nakonieczny et al., 2007.

Further diversification

One Parnassius species, Parnassius apollo (Linnaeus, 1758), dispersed far westward towards Europe and northwards until the permanent snow cover border (Nakonieczny et al., 2007).  During this time, it was still a vast steppe species. The first glaciation in Europe drove P. apollo southwards into refuges (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). Further subsequent glacial-interglacial cycles fueled the expansion and retraction of P. apollo and its occupations and withdrawals in and out of refuges. These ongoing dynamics most probably have led to the further subspecific evolution within P. apollo, leading to over  200 described subspecies in Europe (Todisco et al., 2010). Similar, but to a lesser extent dynamic, processes occurred in the Asian P. apollo range, explaining the difference in subspecies variety between Europa and Asia.

Current distribution

The shrinking steppe habitat in Europe posed selective pressure on P. apollo, leading to a gradual change from a typical steppe species to a mountain-steppe species (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). Now, P. Apollo is considered a steppe and mountain-subalpine-sub boreal species, occupying many different habitats in a wide distribution range (Descimon, 1995).  Its extensive Palaearctic range spans from 7° W (Cantabrian Mountains, Spain) to 120° E (Yakutia, Russia), including the Khentei Mountains in Mongolia. Its latitudinal distribution spans from 62° N (western Finland and Oppland, Norway) to approximately 38° N (Sierra Gádor in Spain, La Madonie massif in Sicily, Mt. Erímanthos in Greece, and West Taurus massif in northeastern Turkey) (summarized from several sources by Nakonieczny et al., 2007)(Fig. 1).

Description

The appearance of P. Apollo makes it one of Europe’s most iconic butterflies, with its 50-80 mm wingspan, chalk-white wings, grey markings, and black and red spots. Males and females differ in their patterns on the fore and hindwings, indicating sexual dimorphism. The different subspecies vary in size, wing shape, and wing pattern. However, the red spots are always present on the hindwings (Bonin et al., 2024).

Figure 2. Female Parnassius apollo

Apollo habitats in Europe

P. Apollo habitats in Europe typically consist of dry calcareous grasslands and steppes in upland areas, and alpine and subalpine grassland. Rocky habitats and screes are also suitable, but below an altitude limit dependent on the mountain range (up to 1,800 m a.s.l. in the Carpathians, 2,500 m a.s.l. in the Alps, and 3,000 m a.s.l. in the Sierra Nevada (Nakonieczny et al., 2007). Regardless of habitat type, the availability of suitable food plants for the larvae is crucial.  

Figure 3. Map of Europe with Parnassius apollo distribution in blue ( Information retrieved from Nakonieczny et al., 2007.)

Host plants

P. apollo is an oligophagous species, i.e., it is restricted to a few specific food sources. Larvae (caterpillars) feed on Sedum album (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 4) or Hylotelephium telephium (Linnaeus, 1758) (Fig. 5) (Nakonieczny & Kędziorski, 2005). These are Sedum species, or stonecrop, which can live in dry conditions due to their CAM strategy (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) (Wai et al., 2019). Lowland P. apollo populations primarily feed on H. telephium, as it grows in open forests and meadows. In contrast, higher altitude P. apollo populations predominantly feed on S. album, a species found in calcareous rocky environments (Stephenson, 1994).  This divides European P. apollo populations into ‘telephiophagous’ forms, feeding on H. telephium and ‘albophagous’ forms, feeding on S. album. Flying adult butterflies rely on a broader range of nectariferous plants for their nectar source, depending on the availability in the area (Massolo et al., 2022).

Figure 4. Sedum album
Figure 5. Hylotelephium telephium

Life cycle

The P. Apollo life cycle (Fig. 6) lasts one year and is univoltine, i.e., overwintering in the egg stage (Bonin et al, 2024).  Females lay eggs that remain dormant over the winter and hatch in the spring of the following year.  The larvae feed on the host plants until they develop fully in size while going through several molts. After this phase, the caterpillar turns into metamorphosis, becoming a pupa. The pupa does not feed but relies on the energy stored from the food it consumed as a larva (Gilbert et al., 1996).  While in the pupa state, the metamorphosis of larva to adult butterfly occurs through a complex series of biochemical reactions, controlled by neural and hormonal mechanisms (Gilbert et al., 1996). 

Figure 6. Photos of all P. apollo life stages, i.e., egg, caterpillar, pupa, and imago

Bibliography

Bonin, L., Jeromen, M., & Jeran, M. (2024). Endangered Butterflies and Their Conservation: the Decline of Parnassius apollo and Phengaris spp. in Europe and Slovenia. Proceedings of Socratic Lectures. 10, 117-125.

Condamine, F. L., Rolland, J., Höhna, S., Sperling, F. A., & Sanmartín, I. (2018). Testing the role of the Red Queen and Court Jester as drivers of the macroevolution of Apollo butterflies. Systematic biology, 67(6), 940-964.

Descimon, H., Bachelard, P., Boitier, E., & Pierrat, V. (2005). Decline and extinction of Parnassius apollo populations in France-continued. Studies on the Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies in Europe, 1, 114-115.

Gilbert, S. F., Opitz, J. M., & Raff, R. A. (1996). Resynthesizing evolutionary and developmental biology. Developmental biology, 173(2), 357-372.

Massolo, A., Fric, Z. F., & Sbaraglia, C. (2022). Climate Change Effects on Habitat Suitability of a Butterfly in the Past, Present, and Future: Biotic Interaction between Parnassius Apollo and Its Host Plants. University of Pisa.

Nakonieczny, M., & Kędziorski, A. (2005). Feeding preferences of the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo ssp. frankenbergeri) larvae inhabiting the Pieniny Mts (southern Poland). Comptes rendus. Biologies, 328(3), 235-242.

Nakonieczny, M., Kedziorski, A., & Michalczyk, K. (2007). Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo L.) in Europe–its history, decline and perspectives of conservation. Functional Ecosystems and Communities, 1(1), 56-79.

Quade, J., Cerling, T. E., & Bowman, J. R. (1989). Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan. Nature, 342(6246), 163-166.

Stephenson, R. (1994). Sedum: cultivated stonecrops. Timber press, Portland. (pp. 335-pp).

Todisco, V., Gratton, P., Cesaroni, D., & Sbordoni, V. (2010). Phylogeography of Parnassius apollo: hints on taxonomy and conservation of a vulnerable glacial butterfly invader. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 101(1), 169-183

Wai, C. M., Weise, S. E., Ozersky, P., Mockler, T. C., Michael, T. P., & VanBuren, R. (2019). Time of day and network reprogramming during drought induced CAM photosynthesis in Sedum album. PLoS genetics, 15(6), e1008209.

Events 

Learn about butterflies day: how the evolution of Lepidoptera contributed to a world full of colors

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Today is the Learn about butterflies day! Let us dive a little bit into the evolutionary history of butterflies, and we can readily establish that indeed these insects should be celebrated! One of many reasons why, is the fact that without them, the world would not have been as brightly colored as it is now.

The order Lepidoptera

Lepidoptera, the order of insects which includes butterflies and moths, is one of the largest and most widespread insect orders in the world, with about 160,000 described species. In the last decades, research to Lepidoptera evolution has become more and more advanced (https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035125). The first research started in the 1970s with morphological studies, i.e., research into the shape and form of Lepidoptera species to classify them in different classes. Later, research advanced to the use of molecular techniques to acquire elaborate data on DNA sequences. This enabled researchers to classify about 46 superfamilies within the Lepidoptera group.

The oldest Lepidopteran fossil is from an organism living in the early Jurassic (193 million years ago). Unfortunately, the Lepidopteran fossil record is limited due to the high fragility of the scale-covered wings and bodies. Still, data suggests that the Lepidoptera order played a huge role in the large-scale radiation and diversification of angiosperms (flowering plants). Angiosperms are now the most diverse and largest group within the plant kingdom, with about 300.000 species, representing 80% of all known green plants. They are the plants that produce flowers and seeds.

Coevolution

But how can butterflies influence the formation of so many different species of flowering plants? This happened because of the process of coevolution. Coevolution is the evolutionary change of multiple populations or species as a result of the interactions between those populations or species. Butterflies feed on nectar, which could be produced by the angiosperms. Angiosperms are insect-pollinated plants, meaning that the transport of reproductive material relies on insect traffic going from one plant to another. So, both species groups depend on each other to survive and reproduce. This led to the opportunity for even more specific plant-pollinator  interactions. 

A pollinator can be generalized, i.e., it can feed on multiple species of nectariferous plants, or it can be specialized, i.e., it has specific features that are compatible with only one nectariferous species. The same applies for the plants, they can be pollinated by several species or they can be specialized and adapt in such a way that only one pollinator species can pollinate. Being a specializer, both as a pollinator and as a plant, comes with certain advantages. For the plant, pollination can become more efficient and less pollen is wasted. For the pollinator, a ‘private’ food source means less competition with other species. This ‘selective advantage’ to become specializers led to the great diversification of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) and angiosperms (flowering plants). 

Coevolution: P. apollo and its host plants

What does this mean for the Apollo butterfly and its host plants? The Apollo butterfly lives on open, rocky slopes and alpine meadows in the mountains. It is specialized to feed on the plants that occur in these habitats and the plants depend on the Apollo for pollination and thereby their reproduction. This shows the delicate interactive balance between flora and fauna in these ecosystems, and the necessity to preserve all the important actors.

So let’s celebrate today as The learn about butterflies day and take some time to appreciate their role in the evolution of flowers!

To extra celebrate the Apollo butterfly, you can now test your knowledge in a quiz! Browse our website for information if you do not know the answer and try to get as many points as possible. 

Who do you think came first, the butterfly or the flowering plant?
Project news 

Öbb goes glyphosate-free: a win for Apollo!

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What is glyphosate?

Glyphosate is the active ingredient used in herbicides. It is used for example in Roundup, from which you may have heard because it is a globally used and discussed herbicide. Glyphosate is a chemical compound that inhibits a certain enzyme in plants and is used to kill plants that are seen as weeds, especially in agriculture. Agricultural crops can be genetically engineered to be glyphosate-resistant, enabling farmers to use it without damaging their own crops.  But it is also used in, for example, home gardening and weed control by local governments in cities and villages. 

Glyphosate was first brought to the market to be used as herbicide in 1974 as Roundup by Monsanto in the United States. Now, glyphosate is one of the most widely used herbicides in the world. 

Glyphosate, trains, and half-time

The Austrian railway company, Öbb, used glyphosate to keep the train tracks free from plants. From 2022 onwards, they adapted an environment-friendly strategy of using glyphosate-free products. Where in 2021 Öbb used 5.3 tons of glyphosate on the train tracks, in 2022 this was zero. 

An interesting fact about glyphosate is that its ‘half-life’ (the time needed to reduce the initial amount by half) is typically about 47 days in the field (although this varies dependent on the type of soil). But if we take into account the 47 days, this would mean that now in the beginning 2024, two years later, there is only little glyphosate from the 5.3 tons of glyphosate sprayed in 2021 left, because the initial amount has halved about 17 times!  

Good news for P. Apollo and other insects

The decision to go glyphosate-free by the Öbb is good news for insects in Austria. Glyphosate not only destructs suitable habitats for butterflies and insects by killing the plants they feed and lay eggs on, it also impacts the fauna on a more chemical level. 

Glyphosate inhibits the production of Melanin, which is a pigment found in all life kingdoms. Melanin plays an important role in a diverse range of biological functions. For example, we produce melanin in our skin to for UV protection. In insects, melanin plays a crucial role in the immune system. During melanization (the process of making of melanin), several chemical components resulting from this process are used to defend the organism from harmful bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens. The inhibition of melanization leads to a higher susceptibility to pathogens in insects and thereby increasing mortality and decreasing population sizes.

The inhibition of melanin is only one reason why glyphosate is harmful for insects. Studies suggest that there are even more pathways of how glyphosate use leads to increased insect mortality. This highlights why it is such good news for P. Apollo and other insects that Öbb stopped using glyphosate.

Rest of Europe?

The debate in Europe about the use of glyphosate is still ongoing. Unfortunately, the European Commission has reauthorized the herbicide for another 10 years. There are several initiatives going on to legally challenge this decision, such as this one by the Pesticide Action Network Europe.

In Austria, the government voted for a partial ban on glyphosate in 2021, meaning that there is a usage ban in ‘sensitive’ areas and for private use. However, the professional use of glyphosate, including agriculture, remains allowed. 

Hopefully, more companies will independently decide to stop using glyphosate, just as Öbb did!

Do you want to know more about the effect of glyphosate on insects? Leave a comment!